"The Firm and its Profits"

What sets the firm apart from other producers is the commercial nature of its operations. The firm produces for the market and only for the market. It produces goods and buys them not in order to consume them but in order to sell them or their products. While economic agents other than the firm sell commodities, the sale of commodities is not the end of their exchange transactions. They "sell in order to buy" instead of "buying in order to sell." Workers engage in exchange to acquire "necessities," landlords do so to get "luxuries," and "factor" owners exchange their goods to get ones that have a higher utility than their endowments. Exchanging for the purpose of selling is exchanging for the purpose of money making. For, as Marx emphasized, buying in order to sell is rational, benefits those that do it, only if commodities can be purchased for less money than can be made through their sale or the sale of goods which can be produced with them. The difference between the money spent on their purchase and the money made through their sale or that of their products is the profit from the transaction, and this profit or monetary gain is the objective of the firm's operations. Money acquisition, although necessary for the purchase of goods, is not the same as goods acquisition. Instead of giving one goods, money gives one the power of purchasing them, a title to a certain portion of society's wealth. In striving for profit the firm strives to extend its claim over the wealth of nations. Firms want not to consume this wealth but to own it, to acquire it not use it. The firm's profit end is the end of wealth acquisition. Firms differ from other economic agents not only in the way they relate to the wealth of nations, but, also, in the way they obtain it. Others get a part of this wealth by contributing to its production. Their incomes are "earned," the market values ("measures") of productive services. Profit, in contrast, while a component of price, is not itself a price, the market worth of any good or service; It is the "unearned" component of the nation's income and is viewed as such in all traditions of economic thought. The unearned nature of profit income stems from its roots in purchase and sale transactions. These transactions result in a monetary gain only when 1) goods are sold (bought) for a price greater (less) than their market value or 2) goods are sold for a price higher than their cost of production. The first case is the mercantilist one of profit through goods "alienation," through cheating in exchange. Profit comes at the expense of others, of those who bought goods for more than their worth or sold them for less than their value. In the second case, the one traditionally dealt with in income distribution theories profit is the surplus of the product's value over that of its inputs. Profit, here, is the "residual" income from sales proceeds, the income which remains after paying for all the factor services which contributed to the product's production. In neither case is profit "earned," received in return for a service rendered, for goods supplied or any "effort or sacrifice" incurred in their production Insofar as profit is not a "reward," the price of any productive contribution, profit seeking activities are not necessary for production. But if they are not necessary for production, if "entrepeneurship" is not one of production's "factors," then what are they necessary for? What is the firm's role in the economy and does what it does with its profits or how it makes them justify their receipt? How does the accumulation of wealth further the economic ends of society, enhance the wealth of nations? The following turns to economic thought for an answer to these questions. It examines the arguments for the firm and explanations of its profit.

Exploring Adaptation and Fidelity in Parenting Program Implementation: Implications for Practice With Families

The vast majority of evidence-based programs (EBPs) for parenting are manualized and, as evaluated in research settings, have been implemented with a high degree of fidelity. In the real world, providers make changes to evidence-based programs they deliver, including combining programs and modifying materials to meet client needs. Additional research on adaptation of EBPs delivered in natural settings is needed to understand the nature of and reasons for adaptation in program delivery. Moore, Bumbarger, & Cooper (2013) proposed a taxonomy for categorizing adaptations based on fit, timing, and valence. In order to examine the utility of this taxonomy, a qualitative study was conducted with parenting education practitioners to better understand the adaptation options and motivations facing practitioners. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with program coordinators from three community providers in a Southeastern U.S. state. Interviews were followed by an in-person focus groups with program coordinators and participants. Questions were adapted from Moore et al. to explore fit, timing, and valence. A new dimension, autonomy, was added to explore the degree to which the provider can freely make changes to the program or is constrained by external ecological influences. Qualitative responses were coded by two members of the research team across the four domains. Internal validity was assessed by a third team member coding a sample of the team’s coding for comparison. Implications for use of the Moore et al. taxonomy in natural settings are discussed, including implications for community providers in multicultural settings and who are facing real-world external pressures

Limiting Federal Agency Preemption: Recommendations for a New Federalism Executive Order

The structure of the U.S. Constitution reflects a profound respect for the principles of federalism and state sovereignty. These principles require the federal government to recognize and encourage opportunities for state and local governments to exercise their authority, especially in areas of traditional state concern such as the protection of the health, safety, and welfare of their citizens. However, over the last six years there has been a coordinated Executive Branch effortto use the regulatory process to shield certain product manufacturers from state tort liability. The Food and Drug Administration, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, and Consumer Product Safety Commission, among others, have attempted to use the doctrine of preemption to block consumers’ access to state courts. During the Bush Administration, executive agencies have included assertions of preemption in regulatory preambles, filed amicus briefs in litigation in which other litigants have argued that federal statutes preempt state law, and submitted to Congress draft legislation that would preempt state and local authority to protect public health, safety, and the environment. The Obama administration should replace Executive Order 13132, which instructs administrative agencies to consider the federalism implications of their actions, with an Executive Order that is more protective of the legitimate interests of state governments in maintaining their traditional role in protecting the health, safety and welfare of their citizens. While the current order has some desirable features, it is inadequate to prompt the type of deliberations in which agencies should engage when they are considering whether to support the preemption of state law

Clinical relevance of Neutral Endopeptidase (NEP/CD10) in melanoma

BACKGROUND: Overexpression of Neutral Endopeptidase (NEP) has been reported in metastatic carcinomas, implicating NEP in tumor progression and suggesting a role for NEP inhibitors in its treatment. We investigated the role of NEP expression in the clinical progression of cutaneous melanoma. METHODS: We screened 7 melanoma cell lines for NEP protein expression. NEP-specific siRNA was transfected into the lines to examine the role of gene transcription in NEP expression. Immunohistochemistry was done for 93 specimens and correlated with clinicopathologic parameters. Thirty-seven metastatic melanoma specimens were examined for NEP transcript expression using Affymetrix GeneChips. In a subset of 25 specimens for which both transcript and protein expression was available, expression ratios were used to identify genes that co-express with NEP in GeneChip analysis. RESULTS: NEP was overexpressed in 4/7 human melanoma cell lines, and siRNA knock-down of NEP transcripts led to downregulation of its protein expression. NEP protein overexpression was significantly more common in metastatic versus primary tumors (P = 0.002). Twelve of 37 (32%) metastatic tumors had increased NEP transcript expression, and an association was observed between NEP transcript upregulation and protein overexpression (P < 0.0001). Thirty-eight genes were found to significantly co-express with NEP (p < 0.005). Thirty-three genes positively correlated with NEP, including genes involved in the MAP kinase pathway, antigen processing and presentation, apoptosis, and WNT signaling pathway, and 5 genes negatively correlated with NEP, including genes of focal adhesion and the notch signaling pathways. CONCLUSION: NEP overexpression, which seems to be largely driven by increased transcription, is rare in primary melanoma and occurs late in melanoma progression. Functional studies are needed to better understand the mechanisms of NEP regulation in melanoma

Age specific aetiological agents of diarrhoea in hospitalized children aged less than five years in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

\ud This study aimed to determine the age-specific aetiologic agents of diarrhoea in children aged less than five years. The study also assessed the efficacy of the empiric treatment of childhood diarrhoea using Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI) guidelines. This study included 280 children aged less than 5 years, admitted with diarrhoea to any of the four major hospitals in Dar es Salaam. Bacterial pathogens were identified using conventional methods. Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and agglutination assay were used to detect viruses and intestinal protozoa, respectively. Antimicrobial susceptibility was determined using Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. At least one of the searched pathogens was detected in 67.1% of the cases, and mixed infections were detected in 20.7% of cases. Overall, bacteria and viruses contributed equally accounting for 33.2% and 32.2% of all the cases, respectively, while parasites were detected in 19.2% patients. Diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) was the most common enteric pathogen, isolated in 22.9% of patients, followed by Cryptosporidium parvum (18.9%), rotavirus (18.1%) and norovirus (13.7%). The main cause of diarrhoea in children aged 0 to 6 months were bacteria, predominantly DEC, while viruses predominated in the 7-12 months age group. Vibrio cholerae was isolated mostly in children above two years. Shigella spp, V. cholerae and DEC showed moderate to high rates of resistance to erythromycin, ampicillin, chloramphenicol and tetracycline (56.2-100%). V. cholerae showed full susceptibility to co-trimoxazole (100%), while DEC and Shigella showed high rate of resistance to co-trimoxazole; 90.6% and 93.3% respectively. None of the bacterial pathogens isolated showed resistance to ciprofloxacin which is not recommended for use in children. Cefotaxime resistance was found only in 4.7% of the DEC. During the dry season, acute watery diarrhoea is the most common type of diarrhoea in children under five years in Dar es Salaam and is predominantly due to DEC, C. parvum, rotaviruses and noroviruses. Constant antibiotic surveillance is warranted as bacteria were highly resistant to various antimicrobial agents including co-trimoxazole and erythromycin which are currently recommended for empiric treatment of diarrhoea.\u

Life satisfaction and resilience in medical school – a six-year longitudinal, nationwide and comparative study

BACKGROUND: This study examined the relationship between life satisfaction among medical students and a basic model of personality, stress and coping. Previous studies have shown relatively high levels of distress, such as symptoms of depression and suicidal thoughts in medical undergraduates. However despite the increased focus on positive psychological health and well-being during the past decades, only a few studies have focused on life satisfaction and coping in medical students. This is the first longitudinal study which has identified predictors of sustained high levels of life satisfaction among medical students. METHODS: This longitudinal, nationwide questionnaire study examined the course of life satisfaction during medical school, compared the level of satisfaction of medical students with that of other university students, and identified resilience factors. T-tests were used to compare means of life satisfaction between and within the population groups. K-means cluster analyses were applied to identify subgroups among the medical students. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and logistic regression analyses were used to compare the subgroups. RESULTS: Life satisfaction decreased during medical school. Medical students were as satisfied as other students in the first year of study, but reported less satisfaction in their graduation year. Medical students who sustained high levels of life satisfaction perceived medical school as interfering less with their social and personal life, and were less likely to use emotion focused coping, such as wishful thinking, than their peers. CONCLUSION: Medical schools should encourage students to spend adequate time on their social and personal lives and emphasise the importance of health-promoting coping strategies

Zoonotic Viruses Associated with Illegally Imported Wildlife Products

The global trade in wildlife has historically contributed to the emergence and spread of infectious diseases. The United States is the world's largest importer of wildlife and wildlife products, yet minimal pathogen surveillance has precluded assessment of the health risks posed by this practice. This report details the findings of a pilot project to establish surveillance methodology for zoonotic agents in confiscated wildlife products. Initial findings from samples collected at several international airports identified parts originating from nonhuman primate (NHP) and rodent species, including baboon, chimpanzee, mangabey, guenon, green monkey, cane rat and rat. Pathogen screening identified retroviruses (simian foamy virus) and/or herpesviruses (cytomegalovirus and lymphocryptovirus) in the NHP samples. These results are the first demonstration that illegal bushmeat importation into the United States could act as a conduit for pathogen spread, and suggest that implementation of disease surveillance of the wildlife trade will help facilitate prevention of disease emergence